Published on: 18-May-2020, 02:17 PM     

EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR FIRE FIGHTERS IN HIGH RISES & OTHER STRUCTURES

OVERVIEW

Highrise buildings exist in virtually every mid- to large-size city and even in some relatively small jurisdictions across the United States. Highrises vary in age, size, height, construction, occupancy type, and design features, including the types of fire protection systems that are installed in them. Fires in highrise buildings can present severe challenges to all types of fire departments. Every fire department that could respond to this type of incident should be prepared to operate in this complex environment. Fires in highrise buildings generally require more complicated operational approaches than most structure fires. Tasks that are normally considered routine for most fire departments, such as locating and attacking the fire, evacuating occupants, and performing ventilation can become very difficult in highrises. Operations are affected by several specific challenges:

1. Access to floor leels that are beyond the reach of aerial apparatus is generally limited to the interior stairways. The use of elevators is usually restricted or prohibited because of safety concerns.

 

1. Hundreds or een thousands of occupants may be exposed to the products of combustion while they are evacuating or unable to descend past a fire on a lower floor. Their exits may be limited to two narrow stairways, which are also the only access for firefighters coming up to assist with evacuation and to fight the fire.

 

1. The ability to contain and control the fire is increasingly dependent on the construction of the building and the ability of sprinkler and/or standpipe systems to delier water to the fire area.

 

1. Ventilation can be much more complicated and critical in highrises than in other types of structures. Vertical entilation is often limited to stairways or elevator shafts, both of which may also have to be used to evacuate occupants. Horizontal ventilation, by breaking out windows, presents the risk of falling glass to those outside the building. The stack effect causes smoke to rise rapidly through the vertical passages and accumulate on upper floors.

 

1. Reflex time, or the amount of time it takes to react and take action, is usually much higher in highrise buildings than in non-highrise buildings. It often takes longer to trael from the ground floor to the fire floor than it takes to respond from the fire station to the building. Firefighters may have to climb dozens of floors before they can even reach the fire floor.

 

1. Communications, command, and control can be ery difficult in a high-rise fire. Radio transmissions through a building’s concrete and steel infrastructure may be compromised. The size and complexity of these buildings require large forces of firefighters and well-coordinated operations in a very complex tactical environment. Effective coordination and control of strategy and tactics are essential.

 

SUMMARY OF KEY ISSUES
ISSUES	COMMENTS
Highrise SOPs	Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are needed for highrise buildings because of the special challenges presented and the strategies and tactics that must be employed to perform safely and effectively in a highrise environment.
Highrise Operational Training	The infrequent occurrence of highrise fires relative to other types of fires in most cities necessitates special highrise training drills for firefighters.
Knowledge of Fire Protection Systems	Fire departments must be familiar with the capabilities, limitations, and designs of the fire protection systems that they will rely on during a fire. Effective tactical operations may depend on the functionality of these built-in systems.
Pre-fire Plans for Highrises	Pre-fire plans are essential for highrise buildings. These plans should address, at a minimum, the types and capabilities of the mechanical fire protection systems, the layout of the building, locations of stairwells and elevators, and evacuation considerations.
Inspection and Testing of Fire Protection Systems	Fire departments should work closely with building management to ensure that all fire protection systems are tested on a regular basis.
Failure of One or More Components of a Highrise Fire Protection System	Fire departments should anticipate what would happen if one or more components of a highrise’s fire protection system were to fail. They should have contingency plans in place in case a system fails to work properly
Pressure Reducing Devices	Problems with pressure reducing devices have been noted in several major highrise fires in the United States. The consequences of these problems have been inadequate water pressure or volume from the standpipe systems to fight the fires.
Highrise Hose and Nozzle Combinations	Many highrise standpipe systems are designed around the concept of the fire department using a specific combination of hoses and nozzles. The use of other combinations can create serious problems.
Highrise Automatic Sprinklers	Very few fire departments have the capability to rapidly extinguish a large volume of fire that is above the reach of aerial streams. Properly maintained sprinkler systems have proven successful in controlling and extinguishing these fires and protecting building occupants.
Highrise Automatic Sprinklers	Compartmentation in highrise buildings is important to help contain a fire, but sprinklers provide the best protection.
Evacuation of Occupants	Highrise building occupants rely on the construction of the building and the functionality of fire protection systems to protect them during a fire. Occupant evacuation training is essential to a workable response in an emergency. Such training should include existing drills, information on building layout, when to stay in place, and so forth.

 

A REVIEW OF THE BASICS

 

When assessing equipment needed for high-rise firefighting, also be sure to review the basic equipment needed, and make sure that you have it with you and it’s in good working order. The basics include:

• A pressure gauge to obtain flow pressures from the riser
• A 30-degree elbow to reduce kinks
• Tools to overcome pressure-releasing devices/valves, such as Allen wrenches and screwdrivers,
• An 18" pipe wrench
• Multiple door chocks
• A low-psi, high-flow nozzle that will easily pass debris. The smooth-bore 1¼" or 1 1/8" tip are the most popular choices and will provide high flow, far reach and good penetration.

Another nozzle that will easily pass debris on a 2½" from a standpipe riser is the Vindicator Heavy Attack nozzle. This is very much worth researching and evaluating as an alternative to the smooth-bore.

 

Lastly, ensure you have adapters so you can supply a damaged fire department connection (FDC) or pump into the system from a place other than the FDC. Double males and female adapters, 2½" gated wyes, Storz to 2½" adapters and high-pressure 2½" to 3" can all supply the FDC.
 

SELECTING PPE

 

When considering what PPE to wear in which situations, keep the following in mind about your gear.

 

Helmet: It is designed to protect the head against falling/swinging/ penetrating objects. This includes protective earflaps that protect the ear area/side of the head against heat. It can also protect against cold weather, although that is not the primary reason to wear your helmet. Protective hoods are an accessory to the helmet that can enclose the entire head/neck/chin area to protect against heat.

 

Eye/face protection: This is usually incorporated in the helmet. It may be a "face shield" arrangement that provides protection to the face, much like that on a hockey player's helmet, but it does not fully meet the standards for eye protection. Newer helmets have better eye protection built in.If there is no shield arrangement on the helmet, then wear separate safety glasses to protect your eyes from penetrating injuries. Carefully evaluate safety glasses before buying en masse to ensure that they will operate well with minimum fogging in environments that you normally work in.The SCBA facemask essentially provides the best eye and face protection you can get, protecting not only from penetrating and splash hazards but also irritating vapors. If you need to wear respiratory protection on the emergency scene, your mask is also protecting your eyes, face, and mouth.

 

Gloves: Understand that one glove doesn't protect against all hazards. There are fire/heat hazards, various sharp objects that can cut or penetrate, chemical hazards (your hands are often the most likely to come in contact with chemicals), and biological hazards (also most likely to come in contact with your hands).Wear structural firefighting gloves when fire/heat hazards are present. At structural fires, items such as broken glass are likely present; wear gloves for protection. While dexterity is important, protection against fire/heat is more important.

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Coat: A firefighter's coat is intended to provide protection against fire and heat and shed water or other fluids. It can also provide minimum protection against some other hazards including sharp objects and burning embers and material. While not perfect in these aspects, it does perform admirably. The work shirt or T-shirt likely worn underneath it provides little to no protection against any of these hazards. If these hazards are present, wear the coat.

 

Pants/boots: Firefighters' bunker pants provide protection similar to the coat. The same issues found with the coat also apply to pants/boots. Boots afford additional protection against liquids, sharp objects puncturing the foot, and toe protection against items being dropped onto the foot. When these hazards present themselves, wear pants/boots. It is recognized that during certain investigations that don't involve fire, the use of pants/boots may not have a significant impact on the safety of responders. Officers may consider providing safety shoes for firefighters who respond often to "shoe runs" with shoes that have some protection against fluids and sharp objects as well as toe protection.

 

WATER SUPPLY

 

Closely tied to apparatus and personnel is watersupply. This is usually the primary function of engine companies, but the water supply entails much more than just having sufficient numbers of pumpersavailable. The water supply must be thought of as a system, meaning that there must be a source ofwater of sufficient volume to suppress the number of British thermal units (BTUs) being given off bythe fire. Another element of the water supply system is the transport system. One type of water supplysystem consists of a hydrant supplying a feeder line to a pumper, which then supplies several handlines. Many other variations are possible, however, and it takes an alert officer to recognize the most effective one for the situation.

 

HOSELINE CONSIDERATIONS

 

Firefighters should use a lightweight, 2½" hoseline from the standpipe riser to initially attack a fire from a standpipe. Why? Because several key elements—reflex time, advanced fire situations, large open spaces in office occupancies, heavy fire loads, poor water pressure, pressure-restricting devices, pressure-reducing valves and wind-driven fires—will usually require a greater Gallons per minute flow than you can achieve from smaller, common 1½"or 1¾" fire lines.

As you evaluate fire hose to make your standpipe pack, you must take into consideration weight, durability, friction loss and ease of packing. A single-jacket, extremely lightweight hose may not prove to be very durable for repeated uses, but a heavier hose compromises your ability to carry it up multiple flights.

 

PORTABLE MASTER STREAM CONSIDERATIONS

 

When the standard 2½" hoseline doesn’t cut it due to advanced fire or low pressure, alternative water delivery methods must be pulled from our toolbox. The ability to deliver an unstaffed, high-Gallons per minute, portable master stream from the standpipe is one such alternative that’s essential for high-rise incidents. The three major nozzle manufacturers—Akron Brass, Elkhart Brass and Task Force Tips—all make a lightweight 2½" portable monitor that will allow you to effectively deliver unstaffed, high-Gallons per minute fire streams to a fire. You should also be able to deploy your regular master stream in portable mode to the same areas if you need more water, or you don’t have the new “lightweight” 2½" versions.

 

Additionally, these devices may be used from the standpipe of an adjacent building to apply water to the fire floor, if needed. Tip: In this situation, make sure you use a smooth-bore tip to provide maximum reach, penetration and ability to pass debris through the system.

 

SPECIALIZED NOZZLES

 

Another alternative for delivering a high- Gallons per minute fire stream is to attack the fire from the floor below by using a specialized nozzle. The only device that’s currently available on the market for this type of operation is the HERO Pipe from Elkhart Brass (www.elkhartbrass.com/products/high-rise/hero-pipe/multimedia).The HERO Pipe is designed to operate off a 2½" supply line that’s connected to a standpipe riser and deliver an unstaffed stream from a window on the floor below to the next floor up. This system is extremely beneficial to firefighters in advanced-fire or wind-driven fire situations.

 

THE KO FIRE CURTAIN

 

To suppress air flow and help combat a wind-driven fire, you may also want to consider reviewing and utilizing the KO Fire Curtain (www.kofirecurtain.com). Numerous tests have proven the benefits of covering the windows to eliminate air influx and improve control of the fire. Without the KO Fire Curtain, hoselines may not be able to advance or control this type of fire. It is 6×6 ft and is not weighted, making it light enough to be carried by one member as a routine tool at every high-rise multiple dwelling.

 

 

 

LADDER SELECTION

 

Of all the factors affecting ladder selection,whether for purchasing or use, the single mostimportant item must be its length. The strongest,lightest, safest ladder in the world is of absolutelyno value if it is unable to reach the objective. Inmany cases, departments are lulled into a false senseof security by the presence of aerial devices. Theybegin to think that longer-length portables aren’t required. Before deciding to eliminate the 45-ftladder or even the 55-ft from your department’sinventory, you should survey your area to determinewhether it’s needed. At the same time, the ladder complement should be consistent with the conditions encountered in the response area. I have seen ladder trucks carrying two 45-ft, two 35-ft, and one 28-ft ladder, as well as 12-ft and 14-ft straight ladders, thus surpassing the NFPA requirement for 168 ft of ground ladders.

 

Yet these were totally useless on the fireground in theirown first-response area because they were unsuitable. When selecting ladders for length, the first consideration should go to extension ladders. A 35-ft extension will replace a 28-ft, a 24-ft, and, in a pinch, a 20-ft ladder, since the nested length of a two-section 35-ft is 20 ft. The ability to adjust the ladder to the required working length is a major plus for the extension ladder. The alternatives are carrying many more ladders of various lengths (one of the main reasons in the past for tillered aerial ladders) or to use an incorrect ladder at an improper angle. An added benefit of the extension ladder is that the less experienced member will be more likely to select the proper ladder, or at least a ladder that will do the job.

 

THERMAL IMAGING CAMERAS (TICS)

 

The TIC is one of the greatest advances in thefield of search and rescue. This device resembles avideo camera that sees objects in a black and whitenegative screen or in atemperature variable colordisplay. Instead of seeing the object’s actual color,it readstemperature differentials. Unlike the variousinfrared thermometers that are used to find hot spotsand hidden fire, these devices actually show you apicture of the area at which you are aiming. Thesurrounding room is gray, while warmer objectsare plainly visible, since they appear to be white.Similarly, cooler objects appear black. The hotter orcolder the object, the greater the contrast with thesurroundings. The camera can see through smokeand mist, and the human form can be clearly visibleif the temperature difference between the body andthe background is significant. Some of these devicescan detect as little as a 0.5°F temperature differencebetween objects. In fact, a TIC will even brieflypick up the radiant energy that a person transfers toan object, after that person moves away. There are a number of such cameras currently on the market, both handheld and helmet-mounted.

 

FIREFIGHTER RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

 

Fire department portable radios are frequently unreliable inside buildings and other structures such as tunnels. Construction materials, earth, and changes in the radio frequency environment can greatly reduce the strength of radio signals. If a firefighter inside is unable to transmit or receive, he or she must relocate closer to an exterior opening, move to a different floor, use an alternate means of communication, or resort to runners or direct voice communications. Cell phone signals are affected by the same factors as radio signals. Land line phones will allow firefighters to communicate with dispatchers, but not other units; they may also be affected by the incident occurring in the building. All of these factors may delay operations, and create greater challenges in maintaining crew integrity.

 

New technology can improve signal transmission within buildings and structures through fixed communications infrastructures. Passive approaches simply provide a conduit to assist in the transmission of signals. However, active methods involve powered devices to amplify and retransmit signals.

For example, the “passive antenna system” includes both an internal and an external antenna, connected with a short coaxial cable. A “radiating cable,” also known as a “leaky coax” is a network of coaxial cables with slots in the outer conductor that create a continuous antenna effect.

Increasing in popularity is an active signal transmission method involving a signal booster also known as a “Bi-Directional Amplifier,” or simply BDA. These powered devices amplify signals between an external antenna and one or more internal antennae. Both reception and transmission are amplified messages on portable radios within the building. A network of antennae placed at strategic locations or a leaky coaxial cable distribute signals throughout the coverage area.

 

FIREFIGHTER BAILOUT KIT

A personal escape system is an all-inclusive setup that gives a firefighter the capability to bail out of an upper-floor window in the face of a hostile fire or to evacuate a civilian by rolling them out a window (like a firefighter bailing out of a window). When used to evacuate a victim, the system can be brought back up to the window for the firefighter to self-rescue.

These systems have five common components.

• An anchor hook with hitching slot.
• A descent control device.
• Fifty feet of heat- and cut-resistant rope (typically 7.5 mm diameter).
• A connection carabiner.
• A carrying pack that contains the above and fits into the bellows pocket of turnout gear pants.

When firefighters find themselves in untenable conditions, the anchor hook can be tied off to or hooked around an object or placed at the window sill to create an anchor. The combination of a pre-rigging system and the anchor hook are critical to reduce the time for a firefighter to use the system.

TOOL ACCESSORIES

 

Just as firefighting has evolved and continues to evolve, so too do firefighting tools. Here are just a few of the trends occurring in tool accessorize

 

• An illuminating tool wrap that not only provides better grip but it allows you to see the tool in smoky or low-light conditions. To further improve your grip, wrap oxygen tubing under the tool wrap and around the tool to create “ridges” that keep your hands from slipping. I’ve also found that regular grip tape used for hockey sticks works well too but it doesn’t provide illumination. The illumination wrap can also be used on helmets, SCBA and other items.

 

• Now Axe handles with built-in illumination technology, removing the need to wrap their tools.

 

• The “Marrying Strap” or “Marry Strap” available from Fire Hooks Unlimited holds together a Halligan and a flat-head axe so your other hand is free to hold onto a stair railing, ladder rung or hold a flashlight.